![]() Patients should be assessed for risk factors leading to the further loss of kidney function and cardiovascular disease. Further evaluation should focus on the specific type of kidney disease and on identifying complications related to the disease stage. After the diagnosis of chronic kidney disease is made, staging based on estimated glomerular filtration rate determines prognosis, evaluation, and management. Serum creatinine levels can be used to estimate the glomerular filtration rate, and spot urine testing can detect proteinuria. Other risk factors include cardiovascular disease, family history of chronic kidney disease, and ethnic and racial minority status. Diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and older age are the primary risk factors that warrant screening. Patients should be assessed annually to determine whether they are at increased risk of developing chronic kidney disease based on clinical and sociodemographic factors. Chronic kidney disease affects an estimated 27 million adults in the United States, and is associated with significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke. ![]()
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